Labyrinth Typology

The earliest labyrinth symbols so far discovered are all of the same simple design - the classical type - which has persisted to this day. A history spanning some 4000 years. During this time the basic Classical labyrinth has developed into a number of closely related forms, often in particular geographical regions, by means of simple adjustments to the "seed pattern" that lies at the heart of its construction. But during this time several major developments have taken place, resulting in quite different types of labyrinths being created, which have then themselves been further developed. This process continues to this day, indeed within the last twenty five years or so, several radically new types of labyrinth designs have been developed and these will undoubtably continue to flourish in the future.

To bring some sense of order to this multitude of seemingly different labyrinth designs, I propose that labyrinths can be classified into four major orders, although all of these have various sub-categories, which can be further sub-divided if one so wishes.

The four major categories are:

Classical Labyrinths
Roman Labyrinths
Medieval Labyrinths
Contemporary Labyrinths

Classical Labyrinths

The Classical Labyrinth

(also known as Cretan, seven-path/circuit)

The archetypal classical labyrinth design consists of a single pathway that loops back and forth to form seven circuits, bounded by eight walls, surrounding the central goal. It is found in both circular and square forms. Practically all labyrinths prior to the first few centuries BCE are of this type. Found in historical contexts throughout Europe, North Africa, the Indian sub-continent and Indonesia, this is also the design that occurs in the American Southwest and occasionally in South America. During the current revival of labyrinths it has once again found popularity for its simplicity of construction and archetypal symbolism.

Circular and square varieties of the classical labyrinth design. Mirror image forms will result in the first pathway turning either left or right and both forms are common

This form is also (inappropriately) known as the "Cretan" labyrinth, a term that implies an origin on the island of Crete. Although its subsequent association with the legendary Labyrinth at Knossos is well documented, the design certainly predates the legend and has not been found on Crete prior to the fourth century BCE. It is also known as the "seven-circuit labyrinth," but this too is confusing, for other labyrinth types can have seven paths and classical labyrinths may have more, or less, than seven circuits. The term "Classical" has gained widespread acceptance in recent years and is to be preferred, as it correctly implies the original form and is free from association with any particular location or region - appropriate for a design that is found worldwide. The simplicity of its construction from an easily remembered seed pattern has clearly been instrumental in the wide cultural dissemination of the classical labyrinth. It is by far the world's most common form, and remains popular to this day. Simple amendments to the seed pattern allow different versions of this form to be created quickly and easily and such varieties, often with eleven or fifteen circuits, are common in historical contexts in northern Europe and especially in Scandinavia. Several important variants used in historical contexts are distinctive enough to deserve sub-categories of their own.

A classical labyrinth with 11 paths (12 walls) formed from boulders at Visby on the island of Gotland, Sweden

Classical - Baltic type

(also known as Baltic Wheel)

Found throughout Scandinavia and also in northern Germany, but principally around the shorelines of the Baltic Sea, this labyrinth is also known as the "Baltic Wheel" or "Wheel," after an important example in Hanover, Germany. A relatively simple reconnection of the upper part of the classical seed pattern produces a double spiral at the centre with separate entrance and exit paths. These labyrinths are ideal for continuous processions and games where two or more walkers enter the labyrinth, and this purpose is often reflected in associated traditions and folklore.

A Baltic type labyrinth cut in turf at Dransfeld, Germany (now destroyed). The double spiral at the centre allows a quick exit from the centre of the labyrinth

Classical - Chakra-vyuha type

An unusual development of the classical labyrinth, found primarily in India, is based on a three-fold, rather than four-fold seed pattern and is often drawn with a spiral at the centre. It is referred to in Indian tradition as Chakra-vyuha, a name derived from a magical troop formation employed by the magician Drona at the battle of Kurukshetra, as recounted in the Mahabharata epic.

The stone labyrinth at Baire Gauni, near Chinnakottur in Tamil Nadu, India, is laid out in the Chakra-vyuha syle commonly encountered throughout India

Classical - Other Seed Patterns

Other labyrinths based on three-fold and occasionally on two-fold or five-fold seed patterns are found in various locations. A unique five-fold classical labyrinth with nine circuits recently discovered on a Pima basket from Arizona demonstrates the many varieties of labyrinth that can be created with a full understanding of the construction process. A number of labyrinths with curious designs, obviously based on the classical form, or incorrectly drawn by unskilled hands, should also be included in this category.

A Pima hand-woven basket, made c. 1910, decorated with an unusual nine-path variant of the classical design created from a five-fold seed pattern

The Otfrid Labyrinth

An important though short-lived labyrinth variety, the Otfrid is based on the classical seed pattern, but is drawn concentrically with an additional set of turns added to create an eleven-circuit labyrinth. First found in Christian manuscripts from the mid-ninth century CE, it probably provided the impetus for the development of the much more influential medieval design.

The Otfrid labyrinth design, here the scene for the battle between Theseus and the Minotaur, in a late twelfth century manuscript from Regensburg, Germany

Roman Labyrinths

While the classical labyrinth was known throughout the Roman Empire, the popular use of the labyrinth as a design element in mosaic flooring resulted in a number of interesting developments, all conveniently classifiable as "Roman" varieties. While rarely encountered amongst the examples created during the current revival, these labyrinths are of considerable interest, as they represent the first real attempts to create different forms of the genre and the first major changes to a symbol that had already been in circulation for nearly two thousand years. Several researchers have attempted further classification of Roman designs, based on mathematical or geometrical properties, which allow the majority of the sixty or so Roman mosaic labyrinths to be designated as meander, serpentine, or spiral types.

A typical Roman labyrinth design of the simple meander type, laid in the early fourth century CE, at Harpham, England

Medieval Labyrinths

The Medieval Labyrinth

(also known as Chartres, cathedral or eleven-path/circuit)

First developed during the ninth and tenth centuries CE, the medieval labyrinth combined the eleven circuits of the Otfrid labyrinth with the four-fold symmetry of the Roman labyrinths to produce a design far better suited for use in a Christian context. By the eleventh and twelfth centuries this form became common in manuscripts and in the decoration of church floors in Italy. In the early thirteenth century it spread to France, and soon became the principle form throughout southern and western Europe. The famous use of this labyrinth at Chartres Cathedral has led many writers to term this design the "Chartres" labyrinth. For exact replicas of the labyrinth at Chartres, this term is acceptable, although inappropriate otherwise, as this design was in widespread circulation long before it was employed at Chartres. Although others have used the term "Medieval Christian," "Medieval" accurately portrays the context of this labyrinth, and does not exclude those examples that appear in secular or non-Christian contexts.

An ornate form of the medieval labyrinth, as inlaid in the floor of Chartres Cathedral, France, c. 1205 CE

Medieval Varieties

As with the classical labyrinth, a considerable number of variations upon the basic theme of the medieval labyrinth have been recorded. Circular, square, and polygonal forms of the basic medieval form are common and need no separate classification. However, some examples display deliberate attempts to produce a different design - with more or fewer circuits, different methods of connecting the pathways, or alterations to fit the space available or purpose intended. Some of these have been copied repeatedly from one influential source. Other variations are clearly the result of incorrect attempts at construction or inaccurate restorations of previous designs; this is especially the case with labyrinths formed from turf or boulders, which are prone to deterioration and disturbance. It is usually clear where their designs originate and most of these examples still show signs of their original medieval form. The current revival of interest in the medieval labyrinth, especially in America since the mid-1990s, has resulted in the development of a number of new variations, often with fewer circuits to enable them to fit confined locations. Some are based directly on the labyrinth in Chartres Cathedral and many have been given specific names by their creators, but as most of these titles exist primarily to establish copyright, they can conveniently be included in this sub-category of the Medieval type.

The turf labyrinth formerly at Boughton Green, England, had a medieval design with various changes to the circuits and the centre replaced by a spiral

Medieval - St. Omer

One particular medieval group deserves separate recognition - the St.Omer labyrinths. Its pathway may seem to be a random meandering design, although it can be demonstrated that the pattern was developed from the standard medieval form. The original example constructed in the fourteenth century at the Abbey of St. Bertin in St. Omer, northern France, was subsequently copied and further developed and has been employed on various occasions until modern times.

The St.Omer pavement labyrinth

Contemporary Labyrinths

The current revival of interest in labyrinths has resulted in a number of designers and builders consciously stretching the boundaries of what constitutes a labyrinth, or deliberately seeking new forms for new purposes. Ranging from the minimalist, with just a few turns and paths to capture the essence of the labyrinth, to complex symbolic and thematic designs that still retain a single pathway leading sometimes to a centre, but other times around the full course of the design and back out. Also included here are the Reflection and Relationship labyrinths that have become popular in recent years, which despite having more than one pathway are still labyrinths by intent. Undoubtedly, some of these modern varieties may go on to be judged as important separate developments when studied in the future, but for now this proliferation of forms can best be compared and contrasted within the "Contemporary" heading.

Alex Champion's "Viking Age Horse Trappings Maze", with its complex swirling design, none the less, has basically one continuous pathway and typifies well the nature of contemporary labyrinths (© Earth Mazes)

Please note: The text and illustrationsabove are © Jeff Saward 2003 (unless stated otherwise), adapted and reproduced with permission, from Jeff's study of historical labyrinths and mazes, published in the UK as "Labyrinths & Mazes - The Definitive Guide to Ancient & Modern Traditions" by Gaia Books, London, 2003 (ISBN 1-85675-183-X); in the USA by Lark Books, New York, 2003 as "Labyrinths & Mazes - A Complete Guide to Magical Paths of the World" (ISBN 1-57990-539-0) and in Germany by AT Verlag, Aarau & Munich, 2003 as "Das Große Buch der Labyrinthe und Irrgärten" (ISBN 3-85502-921-0). Unauthorized reproduction of this section of the Caerdroia website and its illustrations is prohibited.

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© Labyrinthos 2003 ~ this page last updated 03/08/2003